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During the Kushan Period Indian Art Was Strongly Influenced by the Art of What Society?

Written By domingo, 24 de abril de 2022 Add Comment Edit

Hellenistic influence on Indian art and architecture reflects the artistic and architectural influence of the Greeks on Indian fine art following the conquests of Alexander the Great, from the terminate of the 4th century BCE to the first centuries of the common era. The Greeks in effect maintained a political presence at the doorstep, and sometimes within Bharat, downwards to the 1st century CE with the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdoms, with many noticeable influences on the arts of the Maurya Empire (c.321–185 BCE) especially.[i] Hellenistic influence on Indian fine art was likewise felt for several more centuries during the menstruation of Greco-Buddhist fine art.[1] [2]

Historical context [edit]

Pre-Hellenistic influences (518–327 BCE) [edit]

Athenian coin (minted c. 500/490 – 485 BCE) discovered in Pushkalavati, Gandhara. This coin is the earliest known example of its type to be institute and then far east.[3]

Coin finds in the Kabul hoard in Kabul or the Shaikhan Dehri hoard in Pushkalavati take revealed numerous Achaemenid coins likewise as many Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE were circulating in the area, at least as far as the Indus during the rule of the Achaemenids, who were in control of the areas as far as Gandhara.[4] [5] [6] [seven] In 2007 a minor coin hoard was discovered at the site of ancient Pushkalavati (Shaikhan Dehri) in Islamic republic of pakistan, containing a tetradrachm minted in Athens c. 500/490 – 485 BCE, together with a number of local types too as silver cast ingots. The Athens coin is the earliest known example of its blazon to be institute and then far to the east.[3]

According to Joe Cribb, these early Greek coins were at the origin of Indian punch-marked coins, the earliest coins adult in Bharat, which used minting technology derived from Greek coinage.[6] Daniel Schlumberger also considers that punch-marked bars, like to the many punch-marked bars found in northwestern Republic of india, initially originated in the Achaemenid Empire, rather than in the Indian heartland:

"The punch-marked bars were upward to now considered to exist Indian (...) However the weight standard is considered by some skillful to be Western farsi, and now that we encounter them likewise beingness uncovered in the soil of Transitional islamic state of afghanistan, we must take into account the possibility that their country of origin should not be sought beyond the Indus, merely rather in the oriental provinces of the Achaemenid Empire".

Hellenistic period (327 BCE onward) [edit]

"Victory coin" of Alexander the Not bad, minted in Babylon c. 322 BCE, following his campaigns in the subcontinent.
Obv: Alexander existence crowned past Nike.
Rev: Alexander attacking male monarch Porus on his elephant.
Argent. British Museum.

The Greek campaigns in India under Alexander the Great were express in time (327–326 BCE) and in extent, but they had extensive long term effects equally Greeks settled for centuries at the doorstep of Bharat.[viii] Before long after the departure of Alexander, the Greeks (described as Yona or Yavana in Indian sources from the Greek "Ionian") may then take participated, together with other groups, in the armed uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against the Nanda Dynasty around 322 BCE, and gone every bit far every bit Pataliputra for the capture of the city from the Nandas. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta besides as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's brotherhood with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus.[9] According to these accounts, this alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful regular army fabricated up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians) who took Pataliputra.[ten] [xi] [12]

After these events, the Greeks were able to maintain a structured presence at the door of India for nigh three centuries, through the Seleucid Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, downwards to the time of the Indo-Greek kingdoms, which ended sometimes in the 1st century CE. During that time, the metropolis of Ai-Khanoum, uppercase of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and the capitals of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, the cities of Sirkap, founded in what is now Pakistan on the Greek Hippodamian grid plan, and Sagala, now located in Pakistan 10 km from the border with India, interacted heavily with the Indian subcontinent. It is considered that Ai-Khanoum and Sirkap may have been primary actors in transmitting Western artistic influence to India, for case in the creation of the quasi-Ionic Pataliputra capital or the floral friezes of the Pillars of Ashoka.[13] Numerous Greek ambassadors, such equally Megasthenes, Deimachus and Dionysius, stayed at the Mauryan court in Pataliputra.

The scope of adoption goes from designs such as the bead and reel blueprint, the key flame palmette design and a diversity of other moldings, to the lifelike rendering of animal sculpture and the design and function of the Ionic anta upper-case letter in the palace of Pataliputra.[14] Later the 1st century CE, Hellenistic influence continued to exist perceived in the syncretic Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, downwards to the 4th–5th centuries CE. Arguably, Hellenistic influence continued to be felt indirectly in India arts for many centuries thereafter.

Influence on Indian monumental stone architecture (268–180 BCE) [edit]

During the Maurya period (c. 321–185 BCE), and especially during the time of Emperor Ashoka (c.268–232 BCE), Hellenistic influence seems to have played a role in the institution of Indian monumental stone architecture. Excavations in the ancient palace of Pataliputra have brought to light Hellenistic sculptural works, and Hellenistic influence appear in the Pillars of Ashoka at about the aforementioned period.

Co-ordinate to John Boardman, in that location were Hellenistic influences on Indian rock architecture. However, the sites and sources of these influences are "not e'er properly identified or still identifiable".[15] 3 broad theories accept been proposed. One was held by early scholars such as Percy Brownish in which stone Indian compages used immigrant craftsmen experienced in the Western farsi Achaemenid regal style, which included much Greek input, to which further more direct Hellenistic influence was added. The second was held by later scholars such as John Irwin who favour by and large indigenous Indian inspiration, and a third held past S.P. Gupta and others, who favour a combination.[16] [17]

Boardman compares the appearance of stone compages in Persia and Republic of india; to some extent the new empires of the Achaemenids and Mauryans faced like issues in "creating stone architecture suitable to the aspirations of empire", when neither country had a tradition of building in stone.[xvi] Western farsi conquests had included areas with of import traditions of big-scale edifice in brick or rock; in India at that place was probably a tradition of large and intricate building in wood, although remains of this are naturally very few.[15] It is possible that the difficult pass through the Hindu Kush and locations to the northwest of information technology such as Ai-Khanoum, a Greek city of Bactria in 3rd-century BCE and about 600 kilometres (370 mi) from Kabul, could have provided the conduit to connect the Hellenistic and Indian artists. Alternatively, the influence could have come up from the ancient Persian Persepolis, now near Shiraz in southwest Iran and nearly 2,200 kilometres (1,400 mi) from Kabul. All the same, a major issue that this proposal faces is that Persepolis was destroyed near 80 years before the beginning Buddhist stone architecture and arts appeared. This leaves the question whether, to what extent and how knowledge was preserved or transferred over the generations between the fall of Persepolis (330 BCE) and the rising of Ashokan era art to its east (later 263 BCE).[fifteen] [17]

Extent of relations [edit]

Numerous contacts take been recorded between the Maurya Empire and the Greek realm. Seleucus I Nicator attempted to conquer Republic of india in 305 BCE, but he finally came to an agreement with Chandragupta Maurya, and signed a treaty which, co-ordinate to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including large parts of what is now Transitional islamic state of afghanistan and Pakistan. A "marital understanding" was as well ended, and Seleucus received 5 hundred war elephants, a military nugget which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.[18] [19]

Later, numerous ambassadors visited the Indian court in Pataliputra, especially Megasthenes to Chandragupta, later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, and later again Ptolemy Two Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Arab republic of egypt and gimmicky of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[20] Ashoka made communications with Greek populations on the site of Alexandria Arachosia (Onetime Kandahar), using the Kandahar Bilingual Stone Inscription or the Kandahar Greek Inscription.

The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom with its uppercase of Ai-Khanoum maintained a potent Hellenistic presence at the doorstep of India from 280–140 BCE, and afterwards that date went into Bharat itself to course Indo-Greek kingdoms which would last until the 1st century CE. At the aforementioned time, Ashoka wrote some of his edicts in Greek, and claimed to have sent ambassadors to Greek rulers equally far every bit the Mediterranean, suggesting his willingness to communicate with the Hellenistic realm.

Instances of Hellenistic influence [edit]

During that period, several instance of artistic influence are known, particular in the expanse of monumental stone sculpture and statuary, an surface area with no known precedents in India. The main period of stone architectural creation seems to correspond to the menses of Ashoka's reign (c.?268–232 BCE).[15] Earlier that, Indians may have had a tradition of wooden compages, but no remains accept ever been plant to prove that betoken. Nevertheless remains of wooden palisades were discovered at archaeological sites in Pataliputra, confirmed Classical accounts that the city had such wooden ramparts. The showtime examples of stone compages were also establish in the palace compound of Pataliputra, with the distinctly Hellenistic Pataliputra upper-case letter and a pillared hall using polished-rock columns. The other remarkable example of awe-inspiring stone architecture is that of the Pillars of Ashoka, themselves displaying Hellenistic influence.[21] Overall, co-ordinate to Boardman, "the visual feel of many Ashokan and subsequently city dwellers in India was considerably conditioned by strange arts, translated to an Indian environment, but equally the archaic Greek had been by the Syrian, the Roman by the Greek, and the Persian by the art of their whole empire".[22]

Pataliputra capital (3rd century BCE) [edit]

The Pataliputra upper-case letter is a monumental rectangular upper-case letter with volutes and Classical designs, that was discovered in the palace ruins of the ancient Mauryan Empire majuscule city of Pataliputra (modern Patna, northeastern India). It is dated to the tertiary century BCE. It is, together with the Pillars of Ashoka one of the first known examples of Indian rock architecture, as no Indian stone monuments or sculptures are known from before that menses.[1] Information technology is also 1 of the kickoff archaeological clues suggesting Hellenistic influence on the arts of Republic of india, in this instance sculptural palatial fine art. The Archaeological Survey of India, an Indian government agency attached to the Ministry of Culture that is responsible for archaeological research and the conservation and preservation of cultural monument in Bharat, straightforwardly describes information technology as "a colossal capital in the Hellenistic style".[23]

Although this capital was a major piece of architecture in the Mauryan palace of Pataliputra, since most of Pataliputra was non excavated, and remains hidden under the modern city of Patna, it is impossible to know the exact nature or extent of the monuments or the buildings that incorporated information technology.

I capital from Sarnath is known, which seems to be an adaptation of the design of the Pataliputra capital letter. This other capital is likewise said to be from the Mauryan flow. Information technology is, together with the Pataliputra capital, considered as "stone brackets or capitals suggestive of the Ionic order".[24] A later on capital establish in Mathura dating to the 2nd or 3rd century (Kushan catamenia) displays a central palmette with side volutes in a manner described as "Ionic", in the same kind of composition as the Pataliputra upper-case letter simply with a coarser rendering. (photo).[25]

Pillars of Ashoka (third century BCE) [edit]

The Pillars of Ashoka were congenital during the reign of the Maurya Empire Ashoka c. 250 BCE. They were new attempts at mastering rock architecture, as no Indian stone monuments or sculptures are known from before that period.[ane]

There are altogether seven remaining capitals, five with lions, i with an elephant and 1 with a zebu bull. One of them, the iv lions of Sarnath, has become the State Emblem of India. The animal capitals are composed of a lotiform base, with an abacus decorated with floral, symbolic or animal designs, topped by the realistic depiction of an creature, thought to each represent a traditional direction in India.

Various foreign influences have been described in the design of these capitals.[27]

Greek columns of the 6th century BCE such as the Sphinx of Naxos, a 12.5m Ionic column crowned past a sitting fauna in the religious heart of Delphi, may have been an inspiration for the pillars of Ashoka.[26] Many similar columns crowned by sphinxes were discovered in ancient Greece, every bit in Sparta, Athens or Spata, and some were used as funerary steles.[26] The Greek sphinx, a king of beasts with the face of a human female person, was considered as having ferocious force, and was idea of every bit a guardian, oftentimes flanking the entrances to temples or royal tombs.[28] Placing animals on top of a lotiform capital letter besides reminds of Achaemenid columns.

The animals, especially the horse on the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka or the bull of the Rampurva majuscule are said to be typically Greek in realism, and belong to a type of highly realistic treatment which cannot be found in Persia.[1]

The abacus parts likewise often seem to display a strong influence of Greek art: in the example of the Rampurva bull or the Sankassa elephant, it is composed of flame palmettes alternated with stylized lotuses and small rosettes flowers.[29] A like kind of pattern can be seen in the frieze of the lost upper-case letter of the Allahabad pillar. These designs probable originated in Greek and Nearly-Eastern arts.[30] [one] They would probably have come up from the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and specifically from a Hellenistic city such every bit Ai-Khanoum, located at the doorstep of Bharat.[13]

Temple architecture (third century BCE) [edit]

Remains of the round temple at Bairat. A stupa was located in the centre, with a pillar and a round wall effectually.

Some of the earliest free-continuing temples in India are thought to have been of a circular type, every bit the Bairat Temple in Bairat, Rajasthan, formed of a central stupa surrounded past a circular pillar and an enclosing wall, congenital during the time of Ashoka and near which were found several Pocket-size Rock Edicts.[31] Ashoka also built the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya c. 250 BCE, besides a round structure, in lodge to protect the Bodhi tree. Representations of this early temple construction are institute on a 100 BCE relief from the stupa railing at Bhārhut, as well as in Sanchi.[32] These circular-type temples were as well found in later stone-hewn caves such as Tulja Caves or Guntupalli.[31]

It has been suggested that these circular structures with colonnades may have originated with the Greek circular Tholos temple, as in the Tholos of Delphi, but circular wooden huts in India could also take been an inspiration.[31]

Diamond throne of Bodh Gaya (3rd century BCE) [edit]

The Diamond throne, or Vajrasana, is a throne in the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya, congenital by rex Ashoka c. 260 BCE,[33] in lodge to mark the place where the Buddha reached enlightenment.[34] Ashoka is thought to accept visited Bodh Gaya around 260 BCE, nigh 10 years into his reign, as explained by his Rock Edict number VIII.[35]

The Diamond throne contains carvings of honeysuckles and geese, which can also be found on several of the pillar uppercase of Ashoka.[36]

Decorative moldings and sculptures [edit]

Hellenistic "flame palmette" designs take also been identified on Mauryan ringstones, here framing the image of a goddess.[37]

Flame palmette [edit]

The flame palmette, central decorative element of the Pataliputra pillar is considered as a purely Greek motif. The first appearance of "flame palmettes" goes back to the stand-alone floral akroteria of the Parthenon (447–432 BCE),[38] and slightly later on at the Temple of Athena Nike.[39] Flame palmettes were then introduced into friezes of floral motifs in replacement of the regular palmette. Flame palmettes are used extensively in India floral friezes, starting with the floral friezes on the capitals of the pillar of Ashoka, and they are probable to have originated with Greek or Near Eastern art.[twoscore] A monumental flame palmette can be seen on the top of the Sunga gateway at Bharhut (2d century BCE).

Botanical combinations [edit]

According to Boardman, although lotus friezes or palmette friezes were known in Mesopotamia centuries before, the unnatural combination of diverse botanical elements which have no human relationship in the wild, such as the palmette, the lotus and sometimes rosette flowers, is a purely Greek innovation, which was so adopted on a very broad geographical calibration.[37]

Bead and reel [edit]

According to art historian John Boardman, the bead and reels motif was entirely developed in Greece from motifs derived from the turning techniques used for wood and metal, and was first employed in stone sculpture in Hellenic republic during the 6th century BCE. The motif then spread to Persia, Egypt and the Hellenistic earth, and equally far equally India, where it can exist found on the abacus part of some of the Pillars of Ashoka or the Pataliputra capital.[41]

Influence on monumental statuary [edit]

Hellenistic arts may have been influential in early statuary (Mauryan and Sunga periods). A few awe-inspiring Yakshas are considered as the earliest costless-standing statues in Republic of india .[42] The treatment of the wearing apparel especially, with lines of geometric folds, is considered every bit a Hellenistic innovation. There are no known previous case of such bronze in India, and they closely resemble Greek Tardily Primitive mannerism which could take been transmitted to India through Achaemenid Persia.[43] This motif appears again in the Sunga works of Bharhut, specially on a depiction of on a foreign soldier, but the aforementioned treatment of the dress is too visible on purely Indian figures.

In some cases, a clear influence from the fine art of Gandhara can also be felt, as in the case of the Hellenistic statue of Herakles strangling the Nemean lion, discovered in Mathura, and at present in the Kolkota Indian Museum, also as Bacchanalian scenes.[44] [45] [46] Although inspired from the art of Gandhara, the portraiture of Herakles is non perfectly verbal and may show a lack of agreement of the subject field matter, every bit Herakles is shown already wearing the skin of the lion he is fighting.[47] [48]

A famous relief from Bodh Gaya showing the Indian god Surya on a quadriga is also often mentioned as a possible example of Hellenistic influence on Indian art.[49] [50] The Surya depiction is indeed very similar to some Greek reliefs of Apollo on his quadriga equus caballus chariot. Other authors signal to the influence of Greco-Bactrian coinage in which similar quadriga scenes sometimes announced, equally on the coinage of Plato of Bactria.[l]

  • Sculpture of woman from ancient Braj-Mathura c. second century CE

First visual representations of Indian deities [edit]

Indian coinage of Agathocles, with Buddhist lion and dancing woman belongings lotus, possible Indian goddess Lakshmi, a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists

1 of the concluding Greco-Bactrian kings, Agathocles of Bactria (r. 190–180 BCE), issued remarkable Indian-standard square coins begetting the first known representations of Indian deities, which have been variously interpreted as Vishnu, Shiva, Vasudeva, Buddha or Balarama. Birthday, six such Indian-standard silvery drachmas in the name of Agathocles were discovered at Ai-Khanoum in 1970.[51] [52] [53] Some other coins past Agathocles are likewise thought to represent the Buddhist king of beasts and the Indian goddess Lakshmi.[53] The Indian coinage of Agathocles is few but spectacular. These coins at least demonstrate the readiness of Greek kings to correspond deities of strange origin. The dedication of a Greek envoy to the cult of Garuda at the Heliodorus pillar in Besnagar could also be indicative of some level of religious syncretism.

Direct influence in Northwestern Republic of india (180 BCE – 20 CE) [edit]

The Indo-Greek period (180 BCE – xx CE) marks a time when Bactrian Greeks established themselves straight in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent following the fall of the Maurya Empire and its takeover by the Sunga.

Religious buildings [edit]

The Butkara stupa was reinforced and decorated from the Indo-Greek catamenia on.

Indo-Greek territories seems to accept been highly involved with Buddhist. Numerous stupas, which had been set upward during the time of Ashoka, were then reinforced and embellished during the Indo-Greek period, using elements of Hellenistic sculpture. A detailed archaeological analysis was made particularly at the Butkara stupa which allowed to define precisely what had been made during the Indo-Greek period, and what came later. The Indo-Greeks are known for the additions and niches, stairs and balustrades in Hellenistic architectural style. These efforts would and so continue during the Indo-Scythian and Kushan periods.[54]

Greeks in Indian rock reliefs [edit]

Numerous depictions of Greeks are known from the area of Gandhara. The Buner reliefs in particular have some of the clearest depictions of revelers and devotees in Greek attire.[55]

Strange devotees and musicians on the Northern Gateway of Stupa I, Sanchi

Buddhist monuments in the heartland of Bharat too take such depictions. Some of the friezes of Sanchi show devotees in Greek attire. The men are depicted with short curly hair, ofttimes held together with a headband of the type commonly seen on Greek coins. The clothing also is Greek, complete with tunics, capes and sandals, typical of the Greek travelling costume. The musical instruments are also quite characteristic, such every bit the double flute chosen aulos. Also visible are carnyx-similar horns. They are all celebrating at the archway of the stupa. These men would exist foreigners from north-west Republic of india visiting the Stupa, possibly Mallas, Sakas or Indo-Greeks.[56]

Three inscriptions are known from Yavana donors at Sanchi, the clearest of which reads "Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam" ("Gift of the Yona of Setapatha"), Setapatha being an uncertain city.[57]

Another rather like greenhorn is also depicted in Bharhut, the Bharhut Yavana, besides wearing a tunic and a regal headband in the manner of a Greek king, and displaying a Buddhist triratna on his sword.[58] [59]

  • Foreign horse riders, Southern Gateway of Stupa 3, Sanchi

  • Foreigner fighting a Makara, Southern Gateway of Stupa 3, Sanchi

Depiction of the Buddha in human grade [edit]

Numerous Greek artifacts were plant in the city of Sirkap, well-nigh Taxila in modern Pakistan and in Sagala, a city in modernistic Pakistan 10 km from the border with India. Sirkap was founded as a capital of the Indo-Greek Kingdom and was laid-out on the Greek Hippodamian city plan; Sagala was also an Indo-Greek capital. Individuals in Greek clothes can exist identified on numerous friezes.

Although there is still some debate, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha himself are often considered a result of the Greco-Buddhist interaction. Earlier this innovation, Buddhist art was aniconic, or very largely then: the Buddha was only represented through his symbols (an empty throne, the Bodhi Tree, Buddha footprints, the Dharmachakra).[60]

Probably non feeling bound by these restrictions, and because of "their cult of course, the Greeks were the first to attempt a sculptural representation of the Buddha".[61] In many parts of the Ancient World, the Greeks did develop syncretic divinities, that could become a common religious focus for populations with unlike traditions: a well-known example is Serapis, introduced by Ptolemy I Soter in Egypt, who combined aspects of Greek and Egyptian Gods. In India as well, it was only natural for the Greeks to create a unmarried common divinity past combining the image of a Greek god-male monarch (Apollo, with the traditional physical characteristics of the Buddha).

Some authors have argued that the Greek sculptural treatment of the dress has been adopted for the Buddha and Bodhisattvas throughout Republic of india. It is, even today, a hallmark of numerous Buddhist sculptures as far as Cathay and Japan.[42]

Coinage [edit]

Indo-Greek coinage is rich and varied, and contains some of the best coins of artifact. Its influence on Indian coinage was far-reaching.[62] The Greek script became used extensively on coins for many centuries, equally was the addiction of depicting a ruler on the obverse, often in profile, and deities on the reverse. The Western Satrap, a western dynasty of foreign origin adopted Indo-Greek designs. The Kushans (1st–4th centuries CE) used the Greek script and Greek deities on their coinage. Even as late as the Gupta Empire (4th-6th centuries CE), Kumaragupta I issued coins with an imitation of Greek script.[62]

  • Coin of the Audumbaras influenced by Indo-Greek coin styles. 2nd century BCE

  • Money of the Kunindas influenced by Indo-Greek coin styles. 2d century BCE

Greco-Buddhist artistic legacy (1st century BCE – fourth century CE) [edit]

The full flower of Greco-Buddhist art seems to have postdated the Indo-Greek Kingdom, although it has been suggested that individual Greek artisans and artist probably continued to work for the new masters. It is patently during the dominion of the Indo-Scythian, the Indo-Parthian and Kushan that Greco-Buddhist art evolved to become a dominant fine art form in the northwest of the Indian Subcontinent. Whereas other areas of India, especially the surface area of Mathura received the influence of the Greco-Buddhist school remains a matter of debate.

Criticism [edit]

This Statuary Age artifact of Carmine Jasper torso, despite being excavated by from a Harappan mound, was assigned to the historic Gupta period by archeologist John Marshall considering of its classical Greek art advent.[64]

Many Indian scholars take argued that the notion of Greco-Buddhism, originated past European scholars, goes too far towards relocating Gandharan art equally close to Greek and sometimes Western farsi art and defining ancient Indian art in terms of classical Greco Roman art itself. The archeologist John Marshall on his visit to Taxila and Gandhara was reported as stating, 'it seemed as I had lighted on a fleck of Greece itself' and I felt then in that location was something appealingly Greek in the countryside itself'.[65] Pierre Dupont thought of his trip to Pakistan in 1954 as 'a pious trip to the Greco-Buddhist state'. G. Due west. Leitner coined the term 'Greco-Buddhist' for pieces of Gandharan fine art which had reached Europe in 1870 and hailed them equally a new folio in the history of 'Greek art' instead of 'Indian art'.[66]

John Marshall, writing on the 'Primitive organized religion of the Eastern Indians and their art' declared that during the Ashokan period, the religion of Eastern India asserted its indigenous graphic symbol through a veneer of Perso-Hellenistic polish and finish, and that Magadhan artists would receive their initial grooming nether strange masters from the Ashokan schoolhouse. Stressing the Farsi influences on Mauryan sculpture, Marshall commented on how the upper portion of the yaksha statue displayed a Perso- Median influence in its drapery and style while the stiffness of the lower half exemplified the indigenous Indian fine art existing side by side with avant-garde exotic Perso-Hellenistic art.[67] [68] [69]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g A Brief History of Bharat, Alain Daniélou, Inner Traditions / Bear & Co, 2003, pp. 89–91 [one]
  2. ^ History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The evolution of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999, Paul Bernard, p. 128 and sig. [2]
  3. ^ a b CNG Coins
  4. ^ Bopearachchi, Osmund. "Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and N-Westward India (Before and subsequently Alexander'southward Conquest)". pp. 300–301.
  5. ^ The states Department of Defense force
  6. ^ a b Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Aboriginal India and Iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992). The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan. Ancient India and Iran Trust. pp. 57–59. ISBN9780951839911.
  7. ^ a b Bopearachchi, Osmund. "Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Earlier and after Alexander'south Conquest)". pp. 308-.
  8. ^ Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Aboriginal India and Islamic republic of iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992). The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in prototype and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Islamic republic of pakistan. Ancient India and Iran Trust. p. 59. ISBN9780951839911.
  9. ^ Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, pp. 26–27 [3]
  10. ^ Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p. 27 [4]
  11. ^ History Of The Chamar Dynasty, Raj Kumar, Gyan Publishing Business firm, 2008, p. 51 [v]
  12. ^ "Kusumapura was besieged from every management by the forces of Parvata and Chandragupta: Shakas, Yavanas, Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas, Bahlikas and others, assembled on the advice of Chanakya" in Mudrarakshasa 2. Sanskrit original: "asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama". From the French translation, in "Le Ministre et la marque de l'anneau", ISBN 2-7475-5135-0
  13. ^ a b Boardman, 15
  14. ^ Boardman, 15-19
  15. ^ a b c d Boardman, xiv
  16. ^ a b Boardman, 13
  17. ^ a b Swarajya Prakash Gupta (1980). The Roots of Indian Art. B.R. Publishing. pp. ane–thirty. ISBN978-8176467667.
  18. ^ With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World, Alfred S. Bradford, Pamela M. Bradford Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, p. 125 [six]
  19. ^ Ancient Ethnography: New Approaches, Eran Almagor, Joseph Skinner, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013, p. 104 [seven]
  20. ^ "Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (eds. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.Due south., H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A.)". Archived from the original on 2013-07-28.
  21. ^ Boardman, 15–sixteen
  22. ^ Boardman, 21
  23. ^ "Archaeological Survey of India report". Archived from the original on 2016-12-08. Retrieved 2016-11-eighteen .
  24. ^ "The Archaeology of Early Historic S Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States" F. R. Allchin, George Erdosy, Cambridge University Printing, 1995, listed in page xi [8]
  25. ^ The Arts of India, Southeast Asia, and the Himalayas at the Dallas Museum of Fine art, Published on Dec 12, 2013. Commodity with photo [9]
  26. ^ a b c Graeco-Indica, India'southward cultural contexts with the Greek world, Ramanand Vidya Bhawan, 1991, p. 5
  27. ^ The pillars "owe something to the pervasive influence of Achaemenid compages and sculpture, with no little Greek architectural ornament and sculptural style as well. Observe the florals on the bull capital from Rampurva, and the way of the horse of the Sarnath capital, at present the emblem of the Commonwealth of Bharat." "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" by John Boardman, Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 110
  28. ^ Stewart, Desmond. Pyramids and the Sphinx. [Due south.50.]: Newsweek, U.S., 72. Impress.
  29. ^ "Buddhist Architecture" by Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010, p. 40
  30. ^ "Buddhist Architecture" by Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010, p. 44
  31. ^ a b c Le Huu Phuoc, 2009, pp. 233–237
  32. ^ "Sowing the Seeds of the Lotus: A Journey to the Great Pilgrimage Sites of Buddhism, Role I" by John C. Huntington. Orientations, Nov 1985 pg 61
  33. ^ A Global History of Architecture, Francis D.Chiliad. Ching, Mark M. Jarzombek, Vikramaditya Prakash, John Wiley & Sons, 2017 p. 570ff
  34. ^ "Ashoka did build the Diamond throne at Bodh Gaya to stand in for the Buddha and to marking the place of his enlightenment" in A Global History of Architecture, Francis D.K. Ching, Marking Grand. Jarzombek, Vikramaditya Prakash, John Wiley & Sons, 2017 p. 570ff
  35. ^ Asoka, Mookerji Radhakumud Motilal Banarsidass Publisher, 1962 p. 18
  36. ^ Buddhist Architecture, Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p. 240
  37. ^ a b Boardman, 16]
  38. ^ NEW FRAGMENTS OF THE PARTHENON ACROTERIA, The American School of Classical Studies at Athens [10]
  39. ^ The Sanctuary of Athena Nike in Athens: Architectural Stages and Chronology, Ira Due south. Marking, ASCSA, 1993, p. 83 [11]
  40. ^ Buddhist Compages by Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p. 44
  41. ^ Boardman, 16 and others
  42. ^ a b John Boardman, "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity", Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 112
  43. ^ "It has no local antecedents and looks most like a Greek Late Archaic mannerism" (John Boardman, "The Diffusion of Classical Fine art in Antiquity", Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 112.)
  44. ^ Aspects of Indian Art, by J.E. Van Lohuizen-De Leuve, published by Pratapaditya Pal [12]
  45. ^ Hellenism in Ancient India by Gauranga Nath Banerjee p. 90
  46. ^ Art of India by Vincent Arthur Smith p. 98
  47. ^ History of Early on Rock Sculpture at Mathura: c.150 BCE – 100 CE by Sonya Rhie Quintanilla p. 158
  48. ^ The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans past John M. Rosenfield p. 9
  49. ^ File:Bodh Gaya quadriga relief.jpg
  50. ^ a b Postcolonial Amazons: Female Masculinity and Backbone in Aboriginal Greek and Sanskrit Literature, by Penrose Jr., Oxford Academy Press, 2016 p. 304
  51. ^ Alexander the Great and Bactria: The Formation of a Greek Borderland in Central Asia, Frank Lee Holt, Brill Annal, 1988, p. 2 [13]
  52. ^ Iconography of Balarāma, Nilakanth Purushottam Joshi, Abhinav Publications, 1979, p. 22 [14]
  53. ^ a b The Hellenistic World: Using Coins as Sources, Peter Thonemann, Cambridge Academy Press, 2016, p. 101 [15]
  54. ^ "De fifty'Indus a l'Oxus: archaeologie de l'Asie Centrale", Pierfrancesco Callieri, p. 212: "The diffusion, from the second century BCE, of Hellenistic influences in the compages of Swat is likewise attested past the archaeological searches at the sanctuary of Butkara I, which saw its stupa "monumentalized" at that exact time by basal elements and decorative alcoves derived from Hellenistic architecture".
  55. ^ Cleveland Museum Buner relief drove
  56. ^ "A guide to Sanchi" John Marshall. These "Greek-looking foreigners" are also described in Susan Huntington, "The art of ancient India", p. 100
  57. ^ The Idea of Ancient Bharat: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology, Sage Publications India, Upinder Singh, 2016 p. 18
  58. ^ Faces of Power: Alexander'due south Image and Hellenistic Politics by Andrew Stewart p. 180
  59. ^ "The Improvidence of Classical Art in Artifact, John Boardman, 1993, p. 112
  60. ^ South Asian Buddhism: A Survey, Stephen C. Berkwitz Routledge, 2012, p. 29 et sig. [sixteen]
  61. ^ Linssen, "Zen Living"
  62. ^ a b Foreign Influence on Aboriginal India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 [17]
  63. ^ 2500 Years of Buddhism by P.V. Bapat, p. 283
  64. ^ Marshall, John. Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization. p. 46.
  65. ^ Marshal (1951)
  66. ^ Abe (1995)
  67. ^ Chandra, Ramaprasad (1927). Memoirs of the archaeological survey of India no.30. Archeological Survey of Republic of india. p. 35.
  68. ^ Collier, Simon. "The Origin of the Buddha Paradigm: Gandhara and Colonialism vs. Mathura and Anti-colonialism?".
  69. ^ Falser, Michael. "The Graeco-Buddhist manner of Gandhara – a 'Storia ideologica', or: how a discourse makes a global history of art" (PDF). Journal of Art Historiography. 13.

References [edit]

  • "Boardman"= Boardman, John (1998), "The Origins of Indian Stone Architecture", Bulletin of the Asia Institute, 1998, New Series, Vol. 12 (Alexander'due south Legacy in the East: Studies in Honor of Paul Bernard), pp. 13–22, JSTOR

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_influence_on_Indian_art

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